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The Need For Outdoor Recreational Space in Constructed and Natural Environments To Ensure Cognitive and Physical Well-Being

The Public Interest Law Center of New Jersey and the John S. Watson Institute for Public Policy are interested in providing urban school superintendents with the social science research and other support needed to guarantee the inclusion of outdoor educational and recreational space in their 5-year facilities plans. The Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation is providing funding for our effort. We have begun researching the importance of outdoor play areas and athletic facilities for the cognitive, academic, social, and physical development of children. Our intention is to produce a document that can support the need for such facilities and hopefully provide guidance on the types and quality of recreational programs and facilities considered adequate by professionals in the appropriate areas.

At the request of several superintendents, we are sharing our preliminary research. We intend to update the information presented below as we proceed and invite suggestions and comments from those reading this material.

Legal Framework

The Public Interest Law Center of New Jersey and the John S. Watson Institute for Public Policy believe that there is a need to establish a legal basis for requiring the State of New Jersey to devote more resources to the acquisition and development of recreational school facilities in urban areas if the developmental problems of low-income urban children are going to be remedied. We seek to establish this legal basis for mandating funding for urban recreational school space by focusing primarily on the State Constitution's educational efficiency clause. In Abbott v. Burke, 119 N.J. 287, 392 (1990)("Abbott II"), the New Jersey Supreme Court held that a thorough and efficient education requires adequate physical facilities. In 1997, the Court repeated its holding that "the condition of school facilities always has been of constitutional import" and that most urban schools "lack adequate physical education and equipment." Abbott v. Burke, 149 N.J. 145, 195-96 (1997)("Abbott IV"). Most recently, the Court again concluded that the "State's constitutional educational obligation includes the provision of adequate school facilities," which requires a "commitment to provide facilities that are educationally adequate to permit Abbott children to reach the [Core Curriculum Content Standards] CCCS." Abbott v. Burke, Docket No. A-155-97 at *45, *52 (May 21, 1998)("Abbott V"). Pursuant to the CCCS, the Department of Education promulgated educational adequacy standards that require all elementary schools to contain a gymnasium. Abbott V at *48. At this time, neither the Court nor any of the parties to the Abbott litigation have directly addressed the issue of whether outdoor space is required to meet the core content standards for comprehensive health and physical education.

As a result of Abbott V, the Abbott school districts are required to submit a Five-Year Facilities Management Plan to the New Jersey Department of Education ("DOE") by March 15, 1999. According to directives from the Court, all code violations must be eliminated, overcrowding problems resolved, and needs for specialized spaces such as music, art, and science rooms in elementary schools be documented. Local conditions should be reviewed to determine whether schools must be remodeled or new facilities constructed, and the DOE should review the requests by local districts with deference. Abbott V, at *49. Disputes between school districts and the DOE with respect to constructing or renovating facilities and funding are to be resolved by the Commissioner, with the matter eligible for transfer to an administrative law judge as a contested case. Id. at *53-54. The Commissioner's decision may be appealed to the State Board of Education, whose decision in turn may be appealed, as a final agency decision, to the Appellate Division of the Superior Court. Id. at *54.

In Abbott V, the New Jersey Supreme Court specifically stated:

Requests by the Commissioner [of Education] that funds be appropriated to implement educational programs deemed essential on the basis of demonstrated need [documented by local districts] will be the measure of the State's constitutional obligation to provide a thorough and efficient education, and we anticipate that the Legislature will be fully responsive to that constitutional call.

By presenting, within this legal framework, the findings of current social science research regarding the established relationships between learning, play, athletic activities, and green space, it can be demonstrated that the State's constitutional obligation to provide "a thorough and efficient education" includes the provision of outdoor recreational facilities.

Relevant Social Science Research

New Jersey Core Curriculum Standards require schools to provide a physical education program that develops children's ability to engage in a "physically active lifestyle," "perform a variety of physical activities," and "understand the benefits of involvement in physical activity." Comprehensive Standard 2.5 specifically mandates that all students will learn and apply movement concepts and skills that will "enhance the likelihood of independent learning and participation in physical activity throughout life."

This standard recognizes the integral role of play and other recreational activities to the healthy development of children, and also the importance of organized sports and other physical activities to their psychological and physical well-being. Although the standard is silent as to the physical infrastructure needed to achieve these goals, it is obvious that teachers require adequate facilities to carry out programs related to these goals. There is a growing body of research suggesting that:

• Play is essential for the appropriate cognitive and social development of young children and natural environments facilitate that process.

For many years, social science research has focused on the role of play in a child's early social and cognitive development. E.g. (Piaget, 1962); (Biber, 1984); (Isenberg & Jalongo, 1997); (Bruner, Jolly & Sylva, 1976);(Barnett, 1991); (Sutton-Smith, 1979); (Vygotsky, 1994). Further research indicates that certain features of the physical environment, such as types of equipment, materials (Campbell & Frost, 1985) and the quantity of trees and grass in outdoor space affect play behavior. (Taylor, Wiley, Kuo & Sullivan, 1997). See generally (Levy, 1978); (Rivkin, 1995); (Moore, 1997); (Moore, 1986); (Stine, (1997); (Vance Bibliographies, 1982) for the influence of environmental factors on play. Research at a primary schoolyard in Berkeley, California that altered part of its asphalt into a meadow with woods, streams, ponds, and flowers revealed that children had more positive social relationships in such natural areas and exhibited more creative play (Moore & Wong, 1997).

Many scholars have stressed "the value of active exploration and intimate encounter with a natural landscape as crucial to mental and physical health"(Rubenstein, 1998), especially for children. It has been noted that the younger the child the more the child learns through sensory and physical activity; thus, the more varied and rich the natural setting (e.g., rocks, running water, varieties of colors and sounds, and the wide range of permitted activities), the greater its contribution to the physical, cognitive and emotional development of the child (Rivkin, 1997).

As Prof. Jerry Schierloh, a noted school yard site specialist working in New Jersey, has noted:

The sights, smells, sounds and tactile stimuli of a school's outdoor environment can help greatly to enhance a child's perception of the elements of his environment that can enrich his world. When the senses become dulled through lack of use at a young age, a child may lose, forever, meaningful ways to derive satisfaction from his surroundings.

(Schierloh, 1998).

• The more children move their bodies, the more they stimulate the brain, i.e., exercise has the potential to increase learning.

There is an emerging area of research that asserts that the brain and body are interdependent systems which have connections that strengthen the development of each. Specifically, stimulation to the cerebellum through exercise enhances certain intellectual capabilities. (Healy, 1990). Exercise also changes the chemical balance in the brain to make it more efficient. (Meltz, 1999). And while organized cardiovascular activities keep children fit, it appears that only spontaneous play provides brain connections that stimulate learning. Id. See also (Hinkle, 1988)(noting that certain types of exercise have been shown to improve academic learning and creative thinking).

• Schoolchildren are better able to pay attention after they exercise: this appears to be especially true for boys, who have by far the highest percentage of learning disorders.

In pre-school settings, researchers have found that providing children with enough space in which to move around and make choices, plus clear boundaries and pathways, helps children focus their attention. (Isenberg & Jalongo, 1997). Similarly, older schoolchildren are better able to pay attention after they exercise. A recent study of fourth graders in an urban school conducted by Olga Jarrett of Georgia State University indicates that fidgeting and a general inability to focus is dramatically reduced on days when children are given the opportunity to go outside and play. (Meltz, 1999). Running enough so one has to stop and catch one's breath has also been shown to improve the symptoms of hyperactivity, learning disabilities, depression, and behavioral handicaps. (Hinkle, 1988; Shipmar, 1984). Specifically,

Hyperactive, learning disabled, and behaviorally handicapped children have been found to internally control behaviors that were previously externally controlled following participation in running programs. Running has even been found to be equivalent to low dosages of stimulants in treating hyperkinetic behavior among children. Relatedly, psychotropic medications have been reduced in emotionally handicapped children who run regularly. A downward trend has been reported in the depressive mood scores of hyperactive children following a 10-week running program.

(Hinkle, 1988).

• There appears to be a connection between green space and lower levels of violence among young adults.

We have identified at least one study that establishes a connection between trees and lower levels of violence among people who are not living in institutional settings. (Sullivan & Kuo, 1995). See also literature describing role of community gardens in revitalizing inner city urban neighborhoods (Francis, Cashdan & Paxson, 1984) and preventing crime. (Trust for Public Land, 1994). Additionally, there are certain community-based initiatives that suggest that access to recreational facilities would "decrease violent crime among youth and improve the urban quality of life." (House Report: H.R. 4034, 1994). In Phoenix, when recreational facilities stayed open late, juvenile crime decreased by 55%; and in Philadelphia, the creation of new spaces for recreational activity may have led to a 90% decrease in crime in the affected precinct. (Trust for Public Land, 1994).

• For many children, hands-on activities in outdoor settings are more effective environments to teach science, math, and multi-disciplinary approaches to problem solving.

A recent survey (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996) showed more than 40 organizations either solely devoted to school ground enhancement or sponsoring programs to that end. Many of the organizations listed have a traditional wildlife conservation mission, while others have developed a variety of connections among university science and education departments, state school systems, natural science museums, arboreta, and conservation organizations. It is clear that most outdoor school sites exhibit features that can be interpreted through a variety of curricular windows (i.e., science, math, history, language, fine arts, etc.); and when children learn about features of their environment through different subject areas, their education about those features becomes reinforced and more readily comprehended. (Schierloh, 1998). Furthermore, outdoor school sites offer the opportunity to "act out" solutions to problems through active manipulation of learning materials, and thus enhance a child's discovery, investigation, and experimentation skills. Id. Outdoor school sites are a perfect place to cultivate a young child's sense of wonder for her surroundings, whereas older children may learn about important ecological phenomona, their communities' physical, cultural and spatial place in the world as well as the impact that human activities are having on the physical world. Id.

For years, a well-respected educational organization located in England, Learning Through Landscapes, has noted that additional resources for the formal curriculum are among the many benefits that flow from school ground projects. (Learning Through Landscapes website). Other benefits include: improving the quality of the environment and hence the appearance, image and popularity of the school, dramatic improvements in pupil behavior and attitude, and the development of a better school ethos that stresses care, ownership and responsibility. Id.

In New Jersey, there are several environmental education agencies and interpretive centers that are able to provide schools with in-service and professional development training opportunities to demonstrate the use of outdoor school sites to teachers. The New Jersey Audubon has staff who are trained to provide training expertise to teachers on outdoor school site interpretation. Urban agencies, like the Greater Newark Conservancy or ISLES in Trenton are able to provide recommendations to urban outdoor school sites with limited space, and the School Yard Habitat Coalition (an affiliate of the Association for New Jersey Environmental Education) has been specifically charged with the mandate to assist New Jersey schools in making improved use of their outdoor school sites as wildlife habitats and environments for learning. Finally, New Jersey educators have access to an abundance of curriculum supplement guides that have been developed for use by teachers on outdoor school sites. Curriculum matrices that correlate the activities found in these guides with established school CCCS for most of the State's curriculum domains have been developed. (Schierloh, 1998)

• Recreational programs in schools have been shown to affect children's health, and participation in aerobic activity is associated with enhanced self-esteem and confidence.

Recreational programs in schools have been shown to affect "longevity and health" of children (Hinkle, 1988). The 1996 Surgeon General's report on physical activity and health reveals that physical activity reduces risk of chronic diseases including hypertension, type 2 diabetes, high blood lipids, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. The report states that physical activity can prevent or delay the development of hypertension in children and adolescents and maintain their blood pressure at normal levels. Recreation is also important for children in order to promote "weight control through caloric expenditure " and is particularly important for the large number of children who are overweight. (Report of Surgeon General, 1996).

Some researchers have noted that aerobic activities are associated with enhanced self-esteem and confidence (Hinckle, 1988), while studies of adults who have regular contact with outdoor natural environments indicates increased levels of enjoyment, health, and relaxation and lower levels of stress (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). Although the Kaplans reviewed studies of adults, there is some anecdotal evidence to support applying their conclusion to children. (Rivkin, 1999).

Recommended Physical and Outdoor Education Programs

Despite the above evidence that play and interaction with the outdoor environment are necessary for early child and adolescent development, there are few national or state guidelines for schools to employ with respect to the type and amount of recreational programs and facilities they should provide. Among the publications available there is also an emphasis on traditional physical education programs and athletic facilities with little mention, if at all, of natural environments.

Several national organizations, such as the Center for Disease Control and Prevention ("CDC"), the American Heart Association, and the National Association for Sport and Physical Education ("NASPE") recommend comprehensive daily activity and physical education for children kindergarten through grade 12. NASPE specifically recommends

1) An accumulation of more than 60 minutes, and up to several hours per day of age and developmentally appropriate activities is encouraged for elementary school children, [including a free recess period]; 2) Some of the child's activity each day should be in periods lasting 10 to 15 minutes or more and include moderate to vigorous activity; 3) Extended periods of inactivity are not appropriate for normal, health children; and 4) A variety of physical activities of various levels of intensity is recommended for elementary school children.

(NASPE, 1998). NASPE is the largest of six associations of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. It is a nonprofit organization whose membership includes over 25,000 professionals in the fitness and physical activity fields, and it is the only national association dedicated to strengthening basic knowledge about sport and physical education among educators and the general public. NASPE's mission is to integrate that knowledge into school curricula as well as community programs across the nation because the organization believes that it is critical to improved academic performance, social reform and the health of individuals.

The Public Health Service, which includes several national organizations as well as the President's Counsel on Physical Fitness and Sports, also sets forth its objective of increasing the number of children who participate in daily physical education in its program "Healthy People 2000". (U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, 1995). The guidelines set forth by these organizations remain on the general level and do not provide details as to the types of physical education programs (i.e., competitive sports, calisthenics, dance, etc.) in which children should engage. For such information, please call Prof. Nancy Giardina, Montclair State University at 973-655-7090.

With respect to programs involving natural environments, typical small projects are butterfly gardens, bird feeders and baths, tree planting, sundials, weather stations, native plant gardens, Native American gardens, and compost piles. (Rivkin, 1998). Larger projects are ponds/wetlands, natural trails, meadows/prairie, stream restoration, shelters for small animals, such as brush piles, and big vegetable gardens. Id. Programs that have been developed and distributed nationally include Project Learning Tree for elementary children with secondary education modules, Project WILD/Aquatic WILD, WILD School Sites, Project WET and Wonders of Wetlands. New Jersey Audubon has produced a curriculum supplement called Bridges to the Natural World, which delineates a series of outdoor habitat activities that are specific to New Jersey, adaptable to school sites, and can readily be infused into elementary school curricula. (Schierloh, 1998)

Harmonizing the needs of children of different ages is important in planning schoolyard green spaces. For children 3-5 years of age, dirt and sand must be for digging as well as planting; some plants must be for picking; shrubs, clusters of rocks, tall grass, and certain trees should be available for climbing and hiding; access to hoses and faucets, wetlands or natural streams should be made available for waterplay; and flowers, berries and nuts should be made available for children's pleasure and investigation. (Rivkin, 1998). Seeing, touching, tasting, smelling and pulling apart things are vital for small children (Moore, 1993) and opportunities to do so must be part of the early childhood recreational curriculum.

Recommended Physical and Outdoor Education Facilities

Several facilities planners have requested guidelines for construction of physical and outdoor education facilities. While we have yet to develop recommendations for such standards, we have identified certain resources that should be of assistance to planners working with the Abbott districts.

In Facility Planning for Physical Education, Recreation and Athletics, edited by Richard Flynn, and published by the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, well defined space and construction requirements are set forth regarding gymnasiums, athletic fields and other constructed environments. At this time, we can offer as a positive example the request for outdoor space submitted by Jersey City's Board of Education to the New Jersey Department of Education (which was approved). In its submission, Jersey City's Board of Education planned for gymnasiums, greenhouses, and large outdoor recreation areas. For further information as to how the Board identified, acquired and intends to use the land proposed for outdoor activities, please contact Dr. Richard DiPatri, State Superintendent at (201)915-6201.

Information regarding the development of playgrounds that are developmentally appropriate for young children may be obtained from Donna Walcavage, a landscape architect, at 718-834-0224. We are currently in the process of identifying several other architects who have worked on the design of children's playgrounds for nursery and elementary schools.

The Schoolyard Habitats program of the National Wildlife Federation sponsors a list-serve for organizations working on schoolyard improvement that may be a resource for those schools wishing to create an educationally viable natural environment (that includes rocks, dirt, wind, water, different types of soil, plants, animals, etc.). The Federation's web page as well as those for the Evergreen Foundation and Project Wild are additional sources of both information and links to other greening projects. Here in New Jersey, the School Yard Habitat Coalition is available to assist schools in the design of natural environments. The coordinator Mimi Dunne, can be contacted at 908-637-4125; e-mail: mdunne@nac.net; 605 Pequest Road, Oxford, New Jersey, 07863.

We are aware that some cities have difficulty in finding land to accommodate new facilities-- both constructed and natural. However, there are creative ways to think about this issue, such as improving public parks to support the necessary programs, improving rooftops and working with cities to locate available land within walking distance from the relevant school. It is very important that municipal and county governments work in concert with public schools and members of the community to provide high quality outdoor facilities. From the public's perspective, which government entity owns and maintains the outdoor facility does not matter; only that the facility is safe and available for use. Government and private funders are also more interested in maintaining facilities where local officials collaborate with community leaders.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barnett, L.A. (1991). Developmental benefits of play for children. In B.L. Driver, P.J. Brown & G.L. Peterson (Ed.), The benefits of leisure, pp. 215-247, Venture, PA: State College.

Biber, B. (1984). Early Education and Psychological Development, pp. 241-273, New Haven: Yale University Press.

Bruner, J.S., Jolly, & Sylva, K. (Ed.)(1976). Play: Its Role in Development and Evolution, Harmondsworth: Peguin.

Campbell, S.D., & Frost, J.L. (1985). The Effects of Playground Type on the Cognitive and Social Play Behaviors of Grade Two Children. In J.L. Frost & S.Sunderlein (Eds.), When Children Play: Proceedings of the International Conference on Play and Play Environments, pp.81-92. Wheaton, MD: Association for Childhood Education International.

Francis, M., Cashdan, L., & Paxsin, L. (1984). Comminity Open Spaces: Greening Neighborhoods through community action and land conservation. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

Healy, Jane M. (1990). Endangered Minds: Why Our Children Don't Think, New York: Simon Schuster.

Healy, Jane M. (1994). YouR Child'S Growing Mind: A Guide to Learning And Brain Development From Birth to Adolescence. New York: Doubleday.

Hinkle, J.S. (1988). Psychological benefits of aerobic running: Implications for mental health counselors. Journal of Mental Health Counseling 10(253-261).

H.Rep. To accompay H.R. 40434, Urban Recreation and At-Risk Youth Act of 1994, 103^rd Cong., 2d Sess., March 21, 1994.

Isenberg, J., & Jalongo, M. (Ed.) (1997). Major Trends and Issues in Early Childhood Education, Teachers College Press: Columbia University.

Kaplan, R.& Kaplan, S. (1989). The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Persepctive. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Levy, J. (1978). Play Behavior. New York: Wiley.

Meltz, B.,(1999). "Improved Learning Through Play?" Trenton Times, January 9, 1999.

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Moore, R.C., (1997). Natural Learning. MIG Communications, Berkeley).

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NASPE, (1998). Physical Activity Guidelines for Pre-adolescent Children. Http://www.aahpeerd.org/naspe/PressRelease.htm

Piaget, J. (1962). Play, dreams, and imitations, New York; Norton.

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Rubenstein, N., (1998). Statement given at the Tidelands Resource Council Hearing held in Trenton, New Jersey on August 5, 1998.

Schierloh, J. (1998). Outdoor School Sites in New Jersey: A Case For Increasing Their Use As A Valuable Teaching and Learning Resource. (Unpublished paper).

Shipmar, W.M., (1984). Emotional and behavioral effects of long- distance running on children. In M.L. Sachs & G.W. Buffone (Eds.), Running as Therapy , pp. 125-137, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Stine, S. (1997). Landscapes for Learning: Creating Outdoor Environments for Children and Youth. New York: J. Wiley & Sons.

Sullivan, W.C. & Kuo, F.E., (1995). Do trees strengthen urban communities, reduce domestic violence? USDA Forest Service Southern Region, Technology Bulletin No. 4, Forestry Report R8- FR55, Athens.

Sutton-Smith, B., (1979). Play and Learning. New York: Gardner Press.

Taylor, A.F., Wiley, A., Kuo, F.E., Sullivan, W.C. (1997). Growing Up in the Inner City: Green Spaces as Places to Grow. In Environment and Behavior, Fall 1997.

Trust for Public Land, Healing America's Cities: Why we must invest in urban parks, A Green Cities Initiative Report, San Francisco, Ca.

U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, (1995). Healthy People 2000 Progress Report For Physical Activity and Fitness. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1996). Directory of Schoolyard Habitats Programs. Annapolis, MD: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

U.S. Surgeon General, (1996) Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, Ga: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Vance Bibliographies (1982), Children and the Built Environment: An Annotated Bibliography of Representative Research of Children and Housing, School Design and Environmental Stress. Monticello, Illinois.

Vygotsky, L.S., (1994).Play and Its Role in the Mental Development of the Child in The Vygotsky Reader. Oxford, U.K., Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.: Blackwell.

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